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Drought Management
2021 AUG   13

Flash Droughts

2022 JAN 11

Mains   > Disaster Management   >   Disasters   >   Droughts

WHY IN NEWS?

  • According to the paper published recently in Nature Communications, India is a hotspot for flash droughts and this could have major implications on the country’s crop production.

WHAT IS FLASH DROUGHTS?

  • Flash droughts have been defined in two ways, either as a short-lived yet severe event where soil moisture completely depletes or a multi-week period of rapid intensification toward drought.
  • It is sometimes also defined as a rapidly developing drought event.
  • Conventional droughts take months and sometimes even years to develop to full intensity. Flash droughts on the other hand develop at an unusually fast rate due to extreme weather conditions and persist from a few weeks to some months.
  • It is set in motion by lower-than normal rates of precipitation, abnormally high temperatures, winds, and radiation. Together, these changes in weather can rapidly alter the local climate

DISTRIBUTION ACROSS THE GLOBE:

  • The highest frequency of flash drought occurrence was primarily found within the tropics and subtropics:
    • They include a large portion of Brazil, the Sahel, the Great Rift Valley and India.
    • Additional areas within the tropics that had lesser, but notable flash drought occurrence included central Mexico, the Indochinese Peninsula, and northern Australia.
  • In the mid-latitudes:
    • Local hotspots of flash drought occurrence (10-20 per cent) exist across the central United States, Iberian Peninsula, Asia Minor, southwestern Russia, and northeastern China.

 

CLASSIFICATION OF DROUGHT

The National Commission on Agriculture in India classified three types of drought:

Meteorological drought

  • It is defined as a situation when there is significant decrease from normal precipitation over an area (i.e. more than 10 %)

Agricultural drought:

  • It is a situation when soil moisture and rainfall are inadequate to support healthy crop growth

Hydrological drought:

  • It results from prolonged meteorological drought resulting in depletion of surface and sub-surface water resources.

 

 

DISTRIBUTION IN INDIA

STATISTICS

  • Over 68% of India’s land area is vulnerable to drought
  • NITI Aayog, under the Composite Water Management Index report, highlighted that:
    • About two lakh people die in India every year due to inadequate water and sanitation.
    • It also states that the 6% of GDP will be lost by 2050 due to water crisis.
  • A 2020 study found that:
    • 10%-15% of rice and maize crop areas are affected by the flash droughts each year in India.
  • A paper published in January 2021 predicted that:
    • By the end of the 21st century, the frequency of concurrent hot and dry extremes in India will rise by about five-fold.
    • This can cause approximately a seven-fold increase in flash droughts

DRIVERS OF FLASH DROUGHT

  • Global warming
    • The increased frequency and intensity of extreme weather events such as droughts, floods, heat/ cold waves, cyclones, delayed or early onset of rains, long dry spells, early withdrawal, during the last two decades has been attribute to global warming.
    • Greenhouse emissions will significantly increase the frequency of extreme hot and dry periods, which are the main drivers of flash droughts.
  • Precipitation deficit:
    • When precipitation deficit occurs over an extended period of time, soil moisture is depleted by evapo-transpiration which desiccates land surface.
    • Evapo-transpiration is the process by which water is transferred from the land to the atmosphere by evaporation from the soil and by transpiration from plants.
  • Failed Monsoon:
    • For example in 2018 >> South-West monsoon that provides 80% of India's rainfall, fell short by 9.4% which brings drought like situations in India
  • Tele-connection:
    • It is correlation between meteorological or other environmental phenomena which occurs a long distance apart.
    • For example, El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) is a tele-connection phase that promotes drier and warmer conditions which may increase flash drought frequency.
  • Amplification of evaporative demand:
    • Persistent atmospheric conditions can amplify evaporative demand (extent to which the environment ‘tries’ to evaporate water) at the surface via increased solar insolation and global warming.
  • High precipitation variability:
    • Tropics and Sub-tropics have high potential for drought development due to high precipitation variability and evaporative demand.
  • Oscillation of the Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ):
    • Flash drought development is more likely to occur in the May-June (period associated with increasing rainfall) if onset of ITCZ-induced rainfall is delayed/reduced, in combination with increased evaporative demand.
  • Anticyclones:
    • They have a dual impact on flash drought development:
      • They suppress rainfall which limits soil moisture replenishment.
      • Less cloud coverage and high surface temperatures increase evaporative demand of moisture.
  • Over-exploitation:
    • Overexploitation of ground water and sub-optimum conservation of surface water leading to inadequate water availability for irrigation.
    • Traditional water harvesting systems have been largely abandoned.
  • Unsustainable agricultural practices:
    • Growing crops that do not suit the agro-climatology of a particular region
      • For example, cultivation of sugarcane in Vidarbha region of Maharashtra and Rice in Punjab region
      • Rice and sugarcane are water-intensive crops and growing them in an area where less water is available made the area prone to agricultural drought.
    • Excessive use of High Yielding Seeds (HYV) as these seeds requires more water and proper irrigation.
  • Lack of water storage structures
    • Hence the rain water that falls during the monsoons just gets washed away to the ocean.
  • Increasing urbanization
    • This has led to indiscriminate use of water by urban centres.
    • Over-populated urban centers require water to be pumped from hundreds of kilometers away leaving the sources dry and deficient in water.

IMPACT OF FLASH DROUGHT

  • Impact on economy:
    • Flash drought has ‘multiplier effect’ on economy.
    • As per report of UN Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNDRR), impact of severe droughts is estimated to be about 2-5% of Indias GDP per annum.
    • Lower domestic production
      • In the industrial sector, agro-based industries are directly affected.
      • Lower domestic production of agriculture based inputs for agro-processing units reduces non-agricultural production and employment opportunities
    • Increase farm distress
      • As per recent report, a temperature increase of a single degree Celsius in one day corresponded to about 67 suicides, on average.
      • More than 12,000 farmers have committed suicide in Maharashtra between 2015-2018 mainly due to drought related distress.
    • Fiscal implications
      • Droughts have important implications for government policies, as it reduces tax revenues through declines in income, employment and exports.
      • On the expenditure side, the government is faced with increased expenditure on relief, social welfare, health and water supplies, consumption-related subsidies on food distribution, and the logistical costs of drought related imports
      • Increased budgetary pressures, resulting from lower revenues and higher expenditure, are usually met by either external and internal borrowings, higher taxes or the imposition of new taxes
    • Unhealthy competition:
      • As water becomes scarce, competition among and within sectors usually increases >> which may lead to unfair business practices.
  • Impact on agriculture:
    • About 10-15% areas under cultivation of rice and maize were affected by flash droughts during monsoon season in India between 1951- 2018.
    • Flash droughts of 1979, 1976, and 1982 are the 3 most severe flash droughts that affected Kharif crops during the monsoon season in India.
  • Environmental impact
    • Low water levels in water bodies (lakes, ponds, reservoirs etc.) will reduce availability of drinking water and adversely affect flora and fauna.
    • It causes deforestation, wildfires and increase desertification.
    • Frequent flash droughts can increase stress on endangered species and cause loss of biodiversity.
  • On society:
    • Distress migration
      • People tend to migrate from drought prone area to water surplus areas >> this may create crowding of certain of places, social tensions due to sudden demographic changes etc.
    • Water conflicts:
      • Access and use of scarce water resources generate conflicts which are socially disruptive. 
      • Drought will further inflame water conflicts between states and between farms, cities and industries.
    • Micro level impact at village and household levels
      • Drought may result in a considerable intensification of household food insecurity, water related health risks and loss of livelihoods in the agricultural sector.
      • Availability of water for domestic consumption also diminishes due to drought >> This has implications for health and household activities, including substantial increase in the time spent on collecting water
    • Affects public order:
      • The law and order structure is put under greater pressure by a rise in crime, in turn associated with temporary unemployment, migration and increased destitution
    • Pushes people into poverty.
      • It can cause people in affected areas to withdraw their children from schools, force them to sell their assets such as cattle, land etc.
    • Malnutrition
      • Due to reduction in crop yield, food security is threatened as inadequate intake of food will cause malnutrition.

CHALLENGES:

  • Considered as a short term problem:
    • The problem of drought is compounded by the fact that drought invariably is handled as a ‘crisis situation’ and a short-term problem
  • Issues in assessment and early Warning:
    • Forecasts are general in terms of space and time, timing does not match user needs, information received from different sources sometimes has conflicting messages etc.
  • Lack of proper, reliable data on water:
    • Data in the water sector exists in silos, with very little horizontal and vertical data sharing across the value chain of water thereby reducing efficiency.
  • Wrong perception among people:
    • At the household level, individuals perceive drought as a natural hazard, beyond human control.
  • Higher burden on states:
    • The primary responsibility of managing drought (or any other natural disaster) is that of the State Governments
    • The role of Central Government is to supplement the efforts of the State Government in effective management of disasters and provide additional resources

 

WAY FORWARD

  • Long-term Irrigation Management
    • A long-term strategy is required for managing water resources through irrigation projects in India
    • It consists of several measures which would expand the area under irrigation and reduce the incidence of drought. It includes:
      • Monitoring Reservoirs:
        • It is necessary for the State irrigation department to set up a monitoring system for water stored in reservoirs, exercise appropriate control on releases of water from these reservoirs and plan for judicious use of water resources.
      • Setting up Water Users Association:
        • State Governments should provide incentives for setting up Water Users Association (WUA) to involve communities in the management of irrigation resources.
      • Conjunctive Use of Surface and Groundwater:
        • This concept is very essential, especially in drought areas to increase the production per unit of water. It allows flexibility in cropping patterns and multi-cropping in the canal command
      • Prevention of Evaporation Losses from Reservoirs:
        • Shallow tanks having large surface areas located in the drought-affected regions lose nearly half the volume of stored water by evaporation during the summer months
        • A layer of chemicals like cetyl, steary and fatty alcohol emulsions when applied on the water surface can help reduce evaporation
      • Increasing Storages:
        • Water storage capacity in the States could be increased through expeditious completion of irrigation projects
      • Integrating Small Reservoirs with Major Reservoirs:
        • As large dams are difficult to construct due to high costs and large-scale displacement of people, there is an increased emphasis on creating small reservoirs.
        • A number of small reservoirs could be created to replace a single large reservoir
        • However, in many cases a group of small schemes may not provide the same benefits as a large project can.
        • It is, therefore, very important that minor schemes are integrated with the canal systems of major reservoirs.
      • Inter-basin Transfer of Water:
        • The permanent long-term solution to the drought problem may be found in the basic principles of transfer of power from surplus river basins to the areas of deficit.
        • It has been argued that a National Water Grid could be set up by linking resource abundant rivers such as the Brahmaputra and Ganga with other rivers
  • Early prediction and warning
    • Early-warning systems (EWS) can identify trends in climate and sources of water that are required to detect the emergence or probability of the occurrence of flash droughts.
    • For ex: IMD monitors agricultural drought every two weeks on real-time basis during kharif and rabi crop seasons.
  • Monitoring by states:
    • State Governments should consider setting up of Drought Monitoring Centres (DMCs) staffed by a multi-disciplinary team of meteorologists, hydrologists and agriculture scientists to analyse information on drought parameters from National and State level agencies.
  • Public Distribution System (PDS)
    • The Public Distribution supply chain and Fair Price Shops should be fully geared to ensure availability of food grains during the drought situation.
  • Use of satellites:
    • Satellite imagery can be accessed by relevant agencies from ISRO to check for anomalies.
    • For ex: delayed sowing indicates rainfall deficiency and wilting of crops signifies soil moisture stress – both are indicators of flash drought.
  • Ensuring community participation:
    • State Governments need to encourage the formation of water user’s association (WUAs) for community based management of water delivery system
    • Organize Community-based Consultations through Gram Sabha
    • Strengthening women’s Self-help Groups will increases resilience of the households in responding to drought
  • Empower Panchayati Raj Institutions:
    • Several drought relief and mitigation measures could be implemented through the PRIs more effectively.
    • The necessary budget allocations and implementation support should be provided to these institutions for launching programmes in drought-affected areas.
    • PRIs improve the delivery mechanism and reduce the impact of drought
  • Inter-Agency cooperation:
    • Multiple agencies are involved in monitoring various parameters for flash drought. Their efforts need to be synergized for efficient dissemination of information and activate contingency measures.
  • Linking Climate Change Adaptation and Disaster Risk Reduction:
    • Adaptation to climate variability such as short-term cropping, inter-cropping, small-scale fodder cultivation, small-scale fish cultivation in mini-ponds must be integrated with drought management programme.
  • Crop management practices
    • Cultivation of drought resistant crops and crop varieties followed by scientific management practices would lead to drought proofing over a period of time.
    • The State departments should ensure adequate availability of drought resistant seeds and encourage farmers to adopt better crop management practices from time to time
  • Awareness and Capacity building
    • State governments should take steps to create awareness on drought mitigation methods and programmes to build the capacities of farmers and village level functionaries, which would be of immense help for efficient implementation of different measures of drought proofing.
    • People must be informed of the importance of water conservation and harvesting, optimal water use and the need for increasing forest cover.
  • Monitoring of Drought Mitigation
    • The State Government may consider periodic review of the progress of drought mitigation activities of different departments.
  • Decision Support System for Drought Management:
    • Development of a decision support system for drought management would streamline the implementation of the drought mitigation activities.
    • Establishing automated weather stations and rain gauges to improve the collection of information, promote the use of data related to soil, vegetation and water resource obtained through remote sensing technology and actively support research on climate and natural resource management are some of the initiatives to strengthen the drought mitigation endeavours
  • Information Dissemination
    • Sharing information with print, electronic and social media is an important aspect of drought management.
    • The Central and State Governments and their agencies should collect and disseminate credible and verified information on relevant aspects of drought to the people and media.

 

BEST PRACTICE

  • Integrated Basin Planning:
    • This concept is aimed at coordinating water resources plans throughout a river basin, the most important example of which is the Tennessee Valley Authority in the USA.
    • In India, the Damodar Valley Corporation covering the river Damodar and its tributaries in Bihar and West Bengal was modeled on the lines of the Tennessee Valley Authority.
  • Andhra Pradesh's online water dashboard.
    • Real-time data for groundwater management
  • ‘Pani Panchayat programme’ in Odisha
    • The programme assigns various roles to the community and the local self-government in water management and is preparing community-based drought management plans

PRACTICE QUESTION:

Q.  What are flash droughts? How it affects India’s food security

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Drought Management
2021 AUG   13